SHARI’AH REQUIREMENTS IN ISLAMIC BANKING

 I.   Introduction:

 “You are indeed the best community which has been brought forth for the good of mankind; enjoining what is right, forbidding what is wrong, and believing in God...”

 Holy Qur’an, Surah Al Imran: Verse 11

“Islamic” or “Shari’ah approved” financial systems are better known as Islamic Finance. The basic sources of Shari’ah are the Holy Qur’an and the Sunna, which are followed by the consensus of the jurists and interpreters of Islamic law.

The central feature of the Islamic finance system is the prohibition in the Qur’an of the payment and receipt of interest (or riba).

The Islamic finance system is based upon due principles of profit sharing, risk sharing and partnership between individual and institutions.

Islamic point of view on interest:

Interest has been declared Haram (forbidden) by Allah (SWT)

“ … O you who believe! Fear Allah and give up all outstanding interest if you truly believe. But if you do not do so then be warned of WAR from Allah and His messenger...”

Holy Qur’an Surah 2: Verse 278 & 279

The Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) has said

“Allah (SWT) has cursed the receiver, the giver of interest and also the witness and the one who writes down the transaction; they are all alike.”

Muslim and Tirmidhi.

The strong disapproval of interest by Islam and the vital role of interest in modern commercial banking systems led Muslim thinkers to explore ways and means by which commercial banking could be organised on an interest-free basis.

II.  Development:

Islamic financial institutions are relatively recent creations:

One of the first Islamic banks was set up in Egypt in 1963. Although the origin of modern Islamic banking was in Egypt, it probably would not have developed as an important financial force without the strong support of Saudi investors. The Islamic Development Bank (IDB) was established in 1975 and gave momentum to the Islamic banking movement. It was the first time in modern Muslim history that an international financial institution committed itself to conduct its activities in conformity with the Shari’ah. Instead of working on the basis of interest, the bank was authorised to levy a service fee to cover its administrative expenses.

Since the creation of the IDB, a number of Islamic banking institutions have been established all over the world and some countries have taken the necessary steps to organise their banking systems along Islamic lines. The first private Islamic commercial bank, the Dubai Islamic Bank, was founded in 1975.

III.   Distinguishing features of Islamic financial institutions:

They are:

• interest-free

• multi-purpose and not purely commercial

• strongly equity-oriented

IV. Main principles:

The main principles of Islamic finance include:

• the prohibition of taking or receiving interest;
• capital must have a social and ethical purpose beyond pure, unfettered return;
• investments in businesses dealing with alcohol, gambling, drugs or anything else that the Shari’ah considers unlawful are deemed undesirable and prohibited;
• a prohibition on transactions involving masir (speculation or gambling); and
• a prohibition on gharar, or uncertainty about the subject-matter and terms of contracts – this includes a prohibition on selling something that one does not own.

Because of the restriction on interest-earning investments, Islamic banks must obtain their earnings through profit-sharing investments or fee-based returns. When loans are given for business purposes, the lender, if he wants to make a legitimate gain under the Shari’ah, should take part in the risk. If a lender does not take part in the risk, his receipt of any gain over the amount loaned is classed as interest. Islamic financial institutions also have the flexibility to engage in leasing transactions, including leasing transactions with purchase options.

V. Services by an Islamic Bank:

Traditionally an Islamic bank offers two kinds of services:

• those for a fee or a fixed charge, such as safe deposits, fund transfer, trade financing, property sales and purchases or handling investments; and
• those that involve partnerships in investments and the sharing of profits and losses.

VI.              The Shari’ah board:

One distinct feature of the modern Islamic banking movement is the role of the Shari’ah board, which forms an integral part of an Islamic bank. A Shari’ah board monitors the workings of the Islamic bank and every new transaction that is doubtful from a Shari’ah standpoint has to be cleared by it. These boards include some of the most respected contemporary scholars of Shari’ah and the opinions of these boards are expressed in the form of fatwa. In addition, the International Association of Islamic Bankers, an independent body, supervises the workings of individual Shari’ah boards while its Supreme Religious Board studies the fatwa of the Shari’ah boards of member banks to determine whether they conform with the Shari’ah.

Shari’ah law is open to interpretation and Shari’ah boards often have divergent views on key Shari’ah issues. In this regard, there is no practical guide as to what constitutes an acceptable Islamic financial instrument. A document or structure may be accepted by one Shari’ah board but rejected by a different Shari’ah board.

VII.   Certain basic methods of Islamic financing:

 There are several methods of Islamic financing. However, in the world of commercial financing, certain methods are more commonly encountered than others. These are set out below.

1.  Murabaha (cost-plus financing):

The Murabaha is a method of asset acquisition finance. It involves a contract between the bank and its client for the sale of goods at a price that includes an agreed profit margin, either a percentage of the purchase price or a lump sum. The bank will purchase the goods as requested by its client and will sell them to the client with a mark up. The profit mark-up is fixed before the deal closes and cannot be increased, even if the client does not take the goods within the time stipulated in the contract. Some Islamic banks use an agency arrangement, where the client takes delivery of goods from the seller as agent of the bank. Payment will usually be over time by instalments.

2. Mudaraba (profit sharing):

The Mudaraba is a profit sharing contract, with one party providing 100 per cent of the capital and the other party (the mudarib) providing its expertise to invest the capital, manage the investment project and, if appropriate, provide labour. Profits generated are distributed according to a predetermined ratio, but like the capital itself, cannot be guaranteed. Losses accrued are therefore borne by the provider of capital, who has no control over the management of the project. Mudaraba structures are often used for investment funds, with investors providing money to the Islamic bank, which it invests as mudarib, taking a management fee.

3. Musharaka (partnership financing):

The Musharaka involves a partnership between two parties who both provide capital towards the financing of new or established projects. Both parties share the profits on a pre-agreed ratio, allowing managerial skills to be remunerated, with losses being shared on the basis of equity participation. One or both parties can undertake management of the project. As both parties take on project risk, it is relatively rare for banks to participate in Musharaka transactions.

4. Ijara (leasing):

The Ijara is a contract where the bank buys and leases out equipment required by the client for a rental fee. The duration of the lease and rental fees are agreed in advance. Ownership of the equipment remains with the lessor bank, which will seek to recover the capital cost of the equipment plus a profit margin out of the rentals payable.

There are two types of Ijara: operating leases and lease purchase. In a lease purchase, the obligation to purchase the equipment at the end of the lease and the price at which the assets will be bought is pre-agreed. Rental fees already paid constitute part of the final purchasing price.

Where an asset is financed through floating rate funds, the owner will usually pass the risk of rate fluctuations down to the lessee through the rentals payable by the lessee. This creates a problem under Islamic finance principles as lease rentals cannot be expressed by reference to interest rates. This difficulty is partly surmountable. In leasing transactions the lessor is providing an asset, not funds, so the return is in the form of rent, rather than principal and interest.

In an Ijara lease, the amount and timing of the lease payments should be agreed in advance, though the amount of those payments may be subject to adjustment on a pre-determined basis.

Ways in which the problem has been overcome therefore include: referring to the rent payable under the lease at the date of signing but subject to adjustments by reference to provisions in other documents; or adjusting the rent by cross-reference to LIBOR or to a fluctuating rent payable under a non-Islamic lease signed at the same time. Such structures may be cleared by some Shari’ah boards but not by others.

5.  Istisna’a (commissioned manufacture):

As noted above, the principle of gharar prevents one from selling something that one does not own. The technique of Istisna’a has been developed as an exception to this.

As defined by the Islamic Development Bank, Istisna’a is ‘a contract whereby a party undertakes to produce a specific thing that is possible to be made according to certain agreed specifications at a determined price and for a fixed date of delivery’.

Accordingly, the technique is particularly useful in providing an Islamic element in the construction phase of a project, as it is akin to a fixed price turnkey contract. As the Istisna’a contract is one of procurement and sale of an asset, it also lends itself to non-recourse financing.

In an Istisna’a transaction, a financier may undertake to manufacture an asset and sell it on receipt of monetary instalments. As banks do not normally carry out manufacturing, a parallel contract structure will typically be used. The ultimate buyer of the asset will commission it from the bank, which will institute a parallel contract under which the bank commissions the asset from the manufacturer. The bank charges the buyer the price it pays the manufacturer plus a reasonable profit. The bank therefore takes the risk of manufacture of the asset.

VIII.  The risks and pitfalls of Islamic finance:  

1.  Uncertainty: Shari’ah is a body of religious principles applied to law

and ‘life and behaviour’ in various ways in the world’s numerous Islamic jurisdictions. There is no single, absolute set of rules that constitute a universally applicable Shari’ah and much of the classical law emerged at a time when many financial concepts did not exist. The manner in which banking institutions ensure that they act according to Shari’ah principles is by submitting themselves to the Shari’ah boards. As mentioned above, a document or structure may be accepted by one Shari’ah board but rejected by a different Shari’ah board.

For example, though it is a well-established method of financing, it should be noted that there is some debate among Shari’ah scholars as to the permissibility of the mark-up charged by the bank.

A positive aspect is that Islamic finance contracts can be subject to English or New York law (or any other law). In a recent judgment, the English Court of Appeal upheld the decision of the Commercial Court in Shamil Bank of Bahrain EC v Beximco Pharmaceuticals LPD & Others that where the parties agree that English law governs their contract, provided they can show that they have taken the normal necessary steps to ensure compliance with Shari’ah law (for example, obtaining approval by a Shari’ah board) the English court will neither look at how that certification was obtained nor find to the contrary and will confine itself to applying English legal principles when looking at the contract. This decision reinforces the suitability of English law as a prudent and reliable choice for Islamic financial contracts.

2.Ownership risks/taxes:

In nearly all methods of Islamic financing, the lender is at some stage the owner of the financed goods. In some cases, the asset will be retained for a considerable period and therefore the legal issues surrounding ownership, such as risk, insurance and maintenance become important. These issues include:

• Whether the proposed structure is treated for tax purposes in a manner which is disadvantageous relative to a conventional loan, including whether asset-related tax risks arise, for example tax exposures connected with the physical location or operation, or the particular characteristics, of the asset. It may be possible to manage such issues through the use of vehicles in tax neutral jurisdictions or double taxation treaties;
• whether the party raising finance suffers a tax treatment that is adverse relative to conventional borrowing (interest payments on loans generally being tax-deductible, the same not necessarily being true for profit participating payments or payments related to dealings in assets);
• issues relating to asset risk (i.e. if the asset is destroyed or becomes unfit while the financier owns it) – which fall on the financier so long as the client did not cause the damage;
• potential liability incurred through owning or supplying the asset must be considered by the financier; and
• responsibility regarding insurance and maintenance of the asset.

Responsibility for these issues is allocated between the borrower and the financier on a transaction-by-transaction basis. In the Islamic element of a syndicated project financing, the majority of risks will be borne by the borrower, who will be responsible, for example, for insuring the financed asset and naming the financier as an insured party. This is consistent with the usual provisions of non-Islamic financings.

3.Security/recourse:

A bank financing a transaction may expect to receive a mortgage over an asset as security and the availability of such security will tend to reduce the price of the transaction. The law of the jurisdictions involved varies and will have to be considered in determining whether appropriate security is available. In certain Middle Eastern countries, mortgages over movable assets are forbidden and a financier can only take security if it takes a pledge of the asset, which will often defeat the aim of the financing as a pledge will require the financier to have possession of the asset. Other factors such as registration, notarisation and payment of fees and documentary taxes may also have an effect on the attractiveness of security in the transaction structure. The types of security available under English law are more varied and retention of title is possible in certain circumstances. There are, therefore, benefits in choosing a governing law for the transaction that enables the security objectives to be achieved, so long as the transaction can be declared Shari’ah compliant by a Shari’ah board.

Certain security issues in respect of murabaha, mudaraba, Ijara and Istisna’a transactions are discussed in more detail below.

• As a murabaha contract involves the provision of goods to the buyer on a deferred payment basis, the Islamic lender may wish to take security to ensure that the buyer will make the required payments. Such security may be the assets covered by the murabaha contract but as the assets are in the possession of the buyer; this may be difficult in jurisdictions that require security to be by way of a pledge. Frequently, therefore, security is taken over other assets or can involve other types of collateral such as a third party guarantee, an assignment of payments or security over the buyer’s account with the Islamic bank.

• As a mudaraba involves a joint venture arrangement between the Islamic bank and the party managing the project, the main concern of the bank is that the managing party carries out its obligations appropriately. The contract between the bank and the mudarib will impose conditions for management of the project but in the absence of negligence or misconduct, the mudarib cannot be held liable for losses. The bank may therefore seek a performance bond or guarantee from a third party.

• In an Ijara structure the bank, as lessor, has title over the leased asset. Therefore, the concerns of the bank are similar to the concerns of a lessor in a conventional lease. For example, the bank will aim to ensure that the lessee does not dispose of the asset or reduce its value.

In contrast with most conventional leases, in an Ijara lease the responsibility for maintaining and insuring the leased asset remains that of the lessor throughout. Therefore, the owner/lessor will agree in the lease to procure the maintenance and insurance of the asset. The conventional position of the lessor relieving itself of these burdens can be achieved within the Ijara framework if the owner/lessor recovers the insurance costs by increasing the rental payments and if the lessor appoints the lessee or another third party as its agent to obtain the required insurance in return for a fee. Maintenance obligations can be dealt with in a similar way, where the lessor agrees in the lease to perform all maintenance and repair obligations but appoints the lessee or another third party to perform such obligations on behalf of the lessor in return for a fee. The extent to which maintenance responsibilities have been transferred is usually reflected in the lease payments due from the lessee.

• In an Istisna’a transaction, the bank’s security arises through its ownership of the asset. The contract between the bank and the ultimate buyer can provide that title will not be transferred until the full purchase price has been paid.

4.Default:

Conventional financing transactions usually provide for default interest on late payment of amounts due, which is not possible in Islamic financing. In Islamic financing, the same effect can be achieved in different ways. For example, some form of discount formula can be provided for where an agreed rate of discount is applied for each day that payment is made prior to a backstop date. The backstop date is chosen to reflect the latest date in which funds might be expected to be paid. However, if payment is made after the backstop date then the financier cannot recover any additional amount. In other transactions, we have seen late payment fees replace the conventional default rate of interest.

5.  Document complexity:

The majority of the difficulties brought into a transaction by the Shari’ah-compliant elements are surmountable, even if this means that the documentation will be more complex than in a conventional financing. For example, in a structure that combines

Conventional debt with Islamic equity, the equity cannot be a party to the same document as the debt (for example, a participation agreement). This has been resolved in some cases by making the equity a third party beneficiary to such document.

IX.Islamic finance in action in the GCC:

General:

Given the added complexity and uncertainty, it may be asked why non-Muslims would agree to use Islamic finance structures. The principal answer is that Islamic finance provides an opportunity to tap into the significant funds of Islamic investors seeking Shari’ah compliant investments.

In addition, Islamic finance can be combined with conventional funding sources and export credit agency (ECA) support. For example, Dubai’s Emirates airline recently closed an innovative transaction combining Islamic investment with ECA support.

Islamic finance has continued to expand both geographically and in product richness despite the difficult conditions in the global financial markets and the regional uncertainties. Retaining ‘conventional style’ documentation and a bankable governing law together with a greater consistency in approach among the Shari’ah boards seem to be key aspects in the growth of Islamic finance. The Islamic Financial Services Board, an association of central banks, monetary agencies and governmental organisations was established on 3 November 2002 to develop universal Shari’ah-compliant finance standards and harmonise practices in the Islamic financial services industry.

Once viewed as the realm of a small number of specialised institutions, Islamic finance has now moved into the mainstream, with specialised regional Islamic institutions experiencing a significant growth and global banks such as HSBC, Citibank and UBS coming into the market. There has been a diversification of Islamic structured products, including real estate, aircraft financing, shipping and trade, as well as project finance.

1.  Aircraft finance:

Islamic finance structures are increasingly used in the field of aircraft finance and are not restricted to lessees based in Islamic countries. These structures provide an opportunity to tap into the significant funds of Islamic investors seeking Shari’ah-compliant investments and can be combined with conventional funding sources and ECA support (Dubai’s Emirates airline recently closed an innovative transaction combining Islamic investment with ECA support).

In addition, the aviation industry is in principle Shari’ah-compliant and the financing is asset based, making it a good choice for Islamic investors. Emirates airline has frequently used Islamic leases to finance its fleet expansion. Other Asian carriers such as Thai Airways, Syrian air and Royal Brunei Airlines have also leased aircraft under Islamic-style leases.

2. The international Islamic bond (sukuks) market:

The international Islamic bond (sukuks) market, which did not exist in 2000, reached $6.7bn in 2004, up from $1.9bn in 2003. 2003 was itself was a record year, in which the landmark $400m IDB global sukuk was brought to the market in August and was the first AAA-rated Islamic bond ever launched. The offering, which was enthusiastically received by investors, was followed by Qatar’s $700m Ijara sukuk.

In the conventional system of bond issues and trading, interest is at the centre of any transaction. In the Islamic alternative, the underlying income stream for the bond must not be based on interest, while the sukuk must avoid the obvious system of interest in bond trading.

Different forms of Islamic bonds or sukuks, based on the acceptable methods of financing and purchasing in Islamic law, are widely accepted; for example, income streams arising from Musharakah, Murabaha and Ijara structures, or a combination of them.

However, it should be noted that although some of these instruments have been generally accepted as being in compliance with Islamic principles so that they can be traded in the secondary market, the negotiability of certain others is still a point of debate and controversy.

Ijara bonds are securities representing the ownership of well-defined existing and well-known assets that are tied up to a lease contract. Ijara bonds are negotiable and can be traded in secondary markets. Ijara bonds offer a high degree of flexibility from the point of view of their issuance, management and marketability. Financial intermediaries or both public and private asset owners can issue these bonds.

X. The U.K: Islamic mortgages and changes to tax laws

Recent developments in the UK illustrate how Islamic financing is becoming ‘main stream’ and is recognised as an alternative method of financing to conventional bank financing. In particular, commercial banks have begun offering Shari’ah-compliant mortgages in order to attract Muslim customers, while the UK government has amended the tax laws to clarify the way in which certain Islamic structures will be treated.

Islamic mortgages:

In 2003, HSBC was the first mainstream UK bank to offer mortgages in the UK designed to comply with Shari’ah using the Ijara structure, shortly followed by the launch by United National Bank Limited of its first Islamic product in the UK, the UNB Islamic Mortgage, also based on the Ijara model.

HSBC’s structure involves the bank purchasing a house and then leasing it out to the customer. The customers’ payments include a contribution to the purchase price, a rent for use of the property and insurance charges. At the end of the finance term, when all the payments have been made, the customer can exercise a right to have the property transferred into its name. This structure was greatly facilitated by the UK government’s decision in April 2003 to remove double stamp duty on home purchases under Shari’ah-compliant borrowings (previously stamp duty would have been charged on the purchase of the property by the Bank and then again on the purchase by the customer). The UK Islamic mortgage market is now undergoing significant growth.

XI. Taxation treatment of Islamic financing structures in the UK:

In recognition of the growing importance of Islamic methods of financing in the UK, the Finance Act 2005 introduced provisions to clarify the tax treatment for what it defines as ‘alternative finance arrangements’. The intention is to put these arrangements and the people who use them on an equal footing with conventional finance arrangements and their users.

‘Alternative finance arrangements’ are defined as those giving rise to an alternative finance return or to a profit share return. Broadly, arrangements give rise to an alternative finance return if they involve the purchase by a financial institution of an asset and its onward sale to another person, the sale price is greater than the purchase price, and the difference equates in substance to interest. At least one of the parties must be a financial institution (section 47 of the UK’s Finance Act 2005). Arrangements give rise to a profit share return if they involve the deposit of money with a financial institution, which money is then used by that institution with a view to producing profit. A proportionate part of that profit is then returned to the depositor (section 49).

Where a company is a party to an arrangement giving rise to an alternative finance return or to a profit share return, the loan relationships provisions of the Finance Act 1996 (part 4, chapter 2) are to be applied to the arrangement in the manner provided. Broadly, the purchase price is to be treated as if it were a loan and the return as if it were interest (section 50). In the case of individuals, trustees and other non-corporate persons, the alternative finance return or profit share return are to be treated as if they were interest (section 51). Where an asset is sold by one party to another under an alternative finance arrangement, the effective return is to be excluded in determining the sale and purchase consideration for all other purposes of the tax acts or the Taxation of Chargeable Gains Act 1992 (section 53). A profit share return is not to be treated as a distribution under the Income and Corporation Taxes Act 1988 s 209(2)(e)(iii) (section 54).

XII. Conclusion:

According to one report, Muslims account for about 1/5th of the world’s population. It is said that in the last 20 years, the system of Islamic banking and finance has grown to over 100 billion dollars.

Islamic banking and financing is gaining momentum world-wide. Many of the international RIBA banks are now focusing on LARIBA banking and financing to gain a significant market share of the funds and the deals which insist on LARIBA dealings.

Islamic banks world-wide have not yet come up with the competitive financial instruments and products which allow them to provide valid avenues to the LARIBA owner of funds and which compete in quality and security with instruments offered by other RIBA banks and investment companies in the world.